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Chapter 1 Introduction 11

Protocols1

1.1 PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS1

Chapter 1 Introduction1

Standards Creation Committees2

1.2 STANDARDS ORGANIZATIONS2

Standards2

1.3 Internet Standards4

Regulatory Agencies4

Forums4

Maturity Levels5

Requirement Levels6

ISOC7

1.4 INTERNET ADMINSTRATION7

IANA and ICANN8

IRTF8

IAB8

IETF8

NIC9

1.5 A BRIEF HISTORY9

ARPANET9

Birth of the Internet9

TCP/IP Protocol10

MILNET10

CSNET10

NSFNET11

ANSNET11

The Internet Today11

Timeline11

1.6 SUMMARY12

Multiple Choice13

1.7 PRACTICE SET13

Exercises15

Chapter 2 The OSI Model and the TCP/IP Protocol Suite17

Chapter 2 The OSI Model and the TCP/IP Protocol Suite17

2.1 THE OSI MODEL17

Layered Architecture18

Peer-to-Peer Processes18

2.2 LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL21

Physical Layer21

Data Link Layer22

Network Layer23

Transport Layer24

Session Layer25

Presentation Layer26

Application Layer27

Physical and Data Link Layers28

Network Layer28

2.3 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE28

Transport Layer30

Application Layer31

2.4 ADDRESSING31

Physical Address31

Internet Address32

Port Address33

2.5 TCP/IP VERSIONS34

Version 434

Version 535

Version 635

2.7 PRACTICE SET36

2.6 SUMMARY36

Multiple Choice36

Exercises39

Guided Media41

Chapter 3 Underlying Technologies41

3.1 TRANSMISSION MEDIA41

Chapter 3 Underlying Technologies41

Unguided Media45

3.2 LOCAL AREA NETWORKS(LANS)46

Ethernet46

Token Ring51

Fiber Distributed Data Interface(FDDI)54

3.3 SWITCHING56

Circuit Switching57

Packet Switching57

Message Switching59

3.4 WIDE AREA NETWORKS(WANS)59

Point-to-Point Protocol(PPP)59

X.2560

Frame Relay62

Asynchronous Transfer Mode(ATM)65

3.5 CONNECTING DEVICES68

Repeaters69

Bridges70

Routers72

3.6 SUMMARY73

Gateways73

3.7 PRACTICE SET76

Multiple Choice76

Exercises82

Programming Exercises84

Chapter 4 IP Addressing85

Chapter 4 IP Addressing85

4.1 DECIMAL NOTATION86

4.2 CLASSES87

Class A87

Class B87

Class C88

Class D88

Class E88

Determining the Class of an Address88

Extracting Netid and Hostid89

Multihomed Devices90

Location Not Names90

4.3 SPECIAL ADDRESSES91

Network Address91

Direct Broadcast Address91

Limited Broadcast Address91

Specific Host on This Network93

Loopback Address93

This Host On This Network93

4.4 A SAMPLE INTERNET95

4.5 UNICAST MULTICAST AND BROADCAST ADDRESSES96

Unicast Addresses96

Multicast Addresses96

Broadcast Addresses98

4.6 APPLYING FOR IP ADDRESSES98

Class of Address98

Netids and Hostids98

4.8 SUMMARY99

Authorities99

4.7 PRIVATE NETWORKS99

4.9 PRACTICE SET100

Multiple Choice100

Exercises103

Programming Exercises107

5.1 SUBNETTING109

Chapter 5 Subnetting and Supernetting109

Chapter 5 Subnetting and Supernetting109

Three Levels of Hierarchy111

5.2 MASKING111

Special Addresses in Subnetting113

Contiguous vs.Noncontiguous Mask113

5.3 EXAMPLES OF SUBNETTING113

Subnetting Class A114

Subnetting Class B114

Subnetting Class C117

5.4 VARIABLE-LENGTH SUBNETTING117

5.5 SUPERNETTING119

Supernet Mask120

Classless Interdomain Routing(CIDR)121

5.6 SUMMARY122

Multiple Choice123

5.7 PRACTICE SET123

Exercises125

Chapter 6 Delivery and Routing of IP Packets131

6.1 CONNECTION-ORIENTED VS.CONNECTIONESS SERVICES131

Chapter 6 Delivery and Routing of IP Packets131

6．2 DIRECT VS.INDIRECT DELIVERY132

Direct Delivery132

Indirect Delivery132

6.3 ROUTING METHODS133

Next-Hop Routing133

Network-Specific Routing134

Host-Specific Routing134

Default Routing135

6.4 STATIC VS.DYNAMIC ROUTING135

Static Routing Table136

Dynamic Routing Table136

Routing Table137

6.5 ROUTING MODULE AND ROUTING TABLE DESIGN137

Examples139

Routing Module139

6.6 SUMMARY141

Multiple Choice142

6.7 PRACTICE SET142

Exercises144

Programming Exercises145

Chapter 7 Internet Protocol(IP)147

7.1 DATAGRAM147

Chapter 7 Internet Protocol(IP)147

Maximum Transfer Unit(MTU)152

7.2 FRAGMENTATION152

Fields Related to Fragmentation154

7.3 OPTIONS156

Format156

Option Types157

7.4 CHECKSUM163

Checksum Calculation at the Sender163

Checksum Calculation at the Receiver164

Checksum in the IP Packet165

Example165

7.5 IP DESIGN165

Header-Adding Module166

Processing Module167

Queues168

Routing Table168

Fragmentation Module169

Routing Module169

MTU Table169

Reassembly Table170

Reassembly Module170

7.6 SUMMARY171

7.7 PRACTICE SET172

Multiple Choice172

Exercises175

Programming Exercises176

Chapter 8 ARP and RARP179

Chapter 8 ARP and RARP179

8.1 ARP180

Packet Format182

Encapsulation183

Operation183

Proxy ARP184

8.2 ARP DESIGN186

Cache Table186

Output Module188

Queues188

Imput Module189

Cache-Control Module190

Examples of ARP191

8.3 RARP193

Packet Format193

Encapsulation195

Alternative Solutions to RARP195

8.4 SUMMARY195

8.5 PRACTICE SET196

Multiple Choice196

Exercises198

Programming Exercises199

Chapter 9 Internet Control Message Protocol(ICMP)201

Chapter 9 Internet Control Message Protocol(ICMP)201

9.1 TYPES OF MESSAGES202

9.2 MESSAGE FORMAT203

9.3 ERROR REPORTING203

Destination Unreachable204

Source Quench206

Time Exceeded208

Parameter Problem209

Redirection209

9.4 QUERY211

Echo Request and Reply211

Timestamp Request and Reply212

Address Mask Request and Reply214

Router Solicitation and Advertisement215

9.5 CHECKSUM216

Checksum Calculation217

Checksum Testing217

Example217

9.6 ICMP DESIGN217

Input Module218

Output Module219

9.7 SUMMARY220

9.8 PRACTICE SET220

Multiple Choice220

Exercises223

Programming Exercises225

Chapter 10 Internet Group Management Protocol(IGMP)227

10.1 MULTICASTING227

Multicast Addresses227

Chapter 10 Internet Group Management Protocol(IGMP)227

Types of Messages228

10.2 IGMP228

Message Format228

Operation of IGMP in a Single Network229

Operation of IGMP in an Internet231

Changing IP Addresses to Physical Addresses232

10.3 ENCAPSULATION233

10.4 MULTICAST BACKBONE(MBONE)234

10.5 IGMP DESIGN234

Group Table234

Timers235

Group-Joining Module236

Group-Leaving Module236

Input Module237

Output Module237

Examples of IGMP238

10.6 SUMMARY241

10.7 PRACTICE SET242

Multiple Choice242

Exercises244

Programming Exercises246

Chapter 11 User Datagram Protocol(UDP)247

Chapter 11 User Datagram Protocol(UDP)247

11.1 PROCESS-TO-PROCESS COMMUNICATION248

Port Numbers248

Socket Addresses252

11.2 USER DATAGRAM253

11.3 CHECKSUM254

Checksum Calculation at Sender255

Checksum Calculation at Receiver255

An Example255

Optional Use of the Checksum256

11.4 UDP OPERATION256

Connectionless Services256

Encapsulation and Decapsulation257

Flow and Error Control257

Queuing258

Multiplexing and Demultiplexing259

11.5 USE OF UDP260

11.6 UDP DESIGN260

Control-Block Table261

Input Queues261

Control-Block Module261

Input Module262

Output Module262

Examples263

11.7 SUMMARY264

11.8 PRACTICE SET265

Multiple Choice265

Exercises268

Programming Exercises269

Chapter 12 Transmission Control Protocol(TCP)271

Chapter 12 Transmission Control Protocol(TCP)271

12.1 PROCESS-TO-PROCESS COMMUNICATION272

Port Addresses272

Socket Addresses274

12.2 TCP SERVICES274

Stream Data Service274

Full-Duplex Service275

Reliable Service275

12.3 SEGMENT275

12.4 OPTIONS278

12.5 CHECKSUM281

12.6 FLOW CONTROL281

Sliding Window282

Window Management283

Silly Window Syndrome284

Error Detection and Conection287

12.7 ERROR CONTROL287

12.8 TCP TIMERS290

Retransmission Timer290

Persistence Timer292

Keepalive Timer292

Time-Waited Timer293

12.9 CONNECTION293

Connection Establishment293

Connection Termination295

Connection Resetting296

12.10 STATE TRANSITION DIAGRAM297

Client Diagram298

Server Diagram299

12.11 CONGESTION CONTROL299

Pushing Data301

Encapsulation and Decapsulation301

Queuing301

Multiplexing and Demultiplexing301

12.12 TCP OPERATION301

Urgent Data303

12.13 TCP DESIGN304

Transmission Control Blocks(TCBs)304

Timers306

Main Module306

Input Processing Module309

Output Processing Module309

12.14 SUMMARY310

12.15 PRACTICE SET311

Multiple Choice311

Exercises316

Programming Exercises318

Chapter 13 Routing Protocols(RIP,OSPF,and BGP)319

Chapter 13 Routing Protocols(RIP,OSPF,and BGP)319

13.1 INTERIOR AND EXTERIOR ROUTING320

13.2 RIP321

Distance Vector Routing321

RIP Message Format325

Requests and Responses325

Timers in RIP326

Slow Convergence327

Instability328

Some Remedies for Instability329

RIP Version 2331

Authentication331

Encapsulation332

13.3 OSPF332

Areas332

Link State Routing333

Metric333

Packet Format342

Types of Packets342

Encapsulation350

13.4 BGP350

Path Vector Routing351

Types of Packets353

Packet Format353

Encapsulation357

13.5 MULTICAST ROUTING358

DVMRP358

MOSPF358

13.6 SUMMARY358

Multiple Choice360

13.7 PRACTICE SET360

Exercises365

Programming Exercises368

Chapter 14 Application Layer and Client-Server Model369

Chapter 14 Application Layer and Client-Server Model369

14.1 CLIENT-SERVER MODEL370

Client371

Concurrency in Servers372

Concurrency in Clients372

14.2 CONCURRENCY372

Server372

14.3 PROCESSES374

Concept375

Process Identification376

Process Creation377

14.4 SUMMARY380

14.5 PRACTICE SET381

Multiple Choice381

Exercises384

Programming Exercises385

Chapter 15 BOOTP and DHCP387

15.1 BOOTP387

Packet Format387

Chapter 15 BOOTP and DHCP387

Operation390

Using TFTP391

UDP Ports391

Relay Agent391

15.2 DYNAMIC HOST CONFIGURATION PROTOCOL(DHCP)392

Leasing392

DHCP Operation392

Packet Format394

15.3 SUMMARY395

15.4 PRACTICE SET396

Multiple Choice396

Exercises398

Programming Exercises399

Chapter 16 Domain Name System(DNS)401

16.1 NAME SPACE401

Chapter 16 Domain Name System(DNS)401

Flat Name Space402

Hierarchical Name Space402

16.2 DOMAIN NAME SPACE402

Label402

Domain Name402

Domain404

16.3 DISTRIBUTION OF NAME SPACE405

Hierarchy of Name Servers405

Zone405

Root Server406

16.4 DNS IN THE INTERNET407

Primary and Secondary Servers407

Generic Domains407

Inverse Domain409

Country Domains409

16.5 RESOLUTION410

Resolver410

Mapping Names to Addresses411

Mapping Addresses to Names411

Recursive Resolution412

Iterative Resolution412

Caching412

16.6 DNS MESSAGES413

Header414

16.7 TYPES OF RECORDS416

Question Record416

Resource Record418

16.8 COMPRESSION419

16.9 EXAMPLES420

16.10 DDNS423

16.11 ENCAPSULATION424

16.12 SUMMARY424

16.13 PRACTICE SET425

Multiple Choice425

Exercises428

Chapter 17 TELNET and Rlogin431

17.1 CONCEPT431

Timesharing Environment431

Chapter 17 TELNET and Rlogin431

Login432

17.2 NETWORK VIRTUAL TERMINAL(NVT)433

17.3 NVT CHARACTER SET434

Data Characters434

Remote Control Characters435

17.4 EMBEDDING436

17.5 OPTIONS436

17.6 OPTION NEGOTIATION437

Enabling an Option438

Disabling an Option439

Example440

Symmetry441

17.7 SUBOPTION NEGOTIATION441

17.8 CONTROLLING THE SERVER442

17.9 OUT-OF-BAND SIGNALING443

17.10 ESCAPE CHARACTER444

Default Mode445

Character Mode445

Line Mode445

17.11 MODE OF OPERATION445

Default Mode445

Character Mode445

Line Mode445

17.12 EXAMPLES445

17.13 USER INTERFACE447

17.14 RLOGIN(REMOTELOGIN)448

TCP Port448

Connection448

Flow Control449

Commands449

Mode450

17.15 SECURITY ISSUE452

17.16 SUMMARY452

17.17 PRACTICE SET453

Multiple Choice453

Exercises457

Chapter 18 File Transfer Protocol(FTP)459

Chapter 18 File Transfer Protocol(FTP)459

Data Connection460

Control Connection460

18.1 CONNECTIONS460

18.2 COMMUNICATION461

Communication over Control Connection461

Communication over Data Connection462

18.3 COMMAND PROCESSING464

Commands464

Responses467

18.4 FILE TRANSFER469

18.5 USER INTERFACE472

18.6 ANONYMOUS FTP473

18.7 SUMMARY473

18.8 PRACTICE SET474

Multiple Choice474

Exercises476

19.1 MESSAGES479

Chapter 19 Trivial File Transfer Protocol(TFTP)479

Chapter 19 Trivial File Transfer Protocol(TFTP)479

WRQ480

DATA480

RRQ480

ACK481

ERROR481

19.2 CONNECTION482

Connection Establishment483

Connection Termination483

19.3 DATA TRANSFER483

Flow Control484

Error Control484

Sorcerer s Apprentice Bug485

19.4 UDP PORTS486

19.5 TETP EXAMPLE487

19.6 TFTP OPTIONS487

19.7 SECURITY487

19.8 APPLICATIONS489

19.9 SUMMARY490

19.10 PRACTICE SET490

Multiple Choice490

Exercises493

Chapter 20 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol(SMTP)495

Chapter 20 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol(SMTP)495

20.1 USER AGENT(UA)497

Sending Mail497

20.2 ADDRESSES498

Local Part498

Receiving Mail498

Domain Name499

20.3 DELAYED DELIVERY499

Sender-Site Delay499

Receiver-Site Delay500

One-to-Many Expansion501

20.4 ALIASES501

Intermediate Delay501

20.5 MAIL TRANSFER AGENT(MTA)502

Many-to-One Expansion502

20.6 COMMANDS AND RESPONSES503

Commands503

Responses507

20.7 MAIL TRANSFER PHASES508

Connection Establishment508

Message Transfer509

Connection Termination509

20.8 MULTIPURPOSE INTERNET MAIL EXTENSIONS(MIME)511

MIME-Version512

Content-Type512

Content-Transfer-Encoding514

Content-Id517

Content-Description517

20.9 POST OFFICE PROTOCOL(POP)517

20.10 SUMMARY518

20.11 PRACTICE SET518

Multiple Choice518

Exercises522

21.1 CONCEPT525

Chapter 21 Simple Network Management Protocol(SNMP)525

Chapter 21 Simple Network Management Protocol(SNMP)525

Managers and Agents526

21.2 SMI526

Components526

Name527

Type527

Encoding Method529

21.3 MIB532

Accessing MIB Variables533

Lexicographic Ordering535

21.4 SNMP536

Messages536

Format537

Encoding539

21.5 EXAMPLES540

21.6 UDP PORTS544

21.7 SUMMARY545

21.8 PRACTICE SET546

Multiple Choice546

Exercises549

Chapter 22 Hypertext Transfer Protocol(HTTP)551

Chapter 22 Hypertext Transfer Protocol(HTTP)551

22.1 HTTP TRANSACTION552

Messages552

22.2 REQUEST MESSAGES552

Request Line553

Methods554

22.3 RESPONSE MESSAGE555

Status Line556

22.4 HEADER558

General Header559

Request Header559

Response Header560

Entity Header560

22.5 EXAMPLES560

22.6 PRACTICE SET563

Multiple Choice563

Exercises566

23.1 HYPERTEXT AND HYPERMEDIA567

Chapter 23 World Wide Web(WWW)567

Chapter 23 World Wide Web(WWW)567

23.2 BROWSER ARCHITECTURE568

23.3 STATIC DOCUMENTS569

23.4 HTML569

Structure of a Web Page571

Tags571

Examples575

23.5 DYNAMIC DOCUMENTS577

23.6 COMMON GATEWAY INTERFACE(CGI)578

CGI Program578

Input579

Environment Variables579

Output580

Examples581

23.7 ACTIVE DOCUMENTS583

Creation Compilation and Execution583

23.8 JAVA585

Classes and Objects585

Instantiation585

Inheritance585

Packages585

Skeleton of an Applet586

Creation and Compilation587

HTML Document587

Examples587

23.9 SUMMARY591

23.10 PRACTICE SET592

Multiple Choice592

Exercises596

Programming Exercises597

24.1 SOME DEFINTIONS599

Data Types Defined599

Chapter 24 Socket Interface599

Chapter 24 Socket Interface599

Internet Address Structure600

Internet Socket Address Structure600

24.2 SOCKETS600

Socket Types602

24.3 BYTE ORDERING602

Little-Endian Byte Order603

Big-Endian Byte Order603

Network Byte Order604

Byte-Order Transformation604

24.4 ADDRESS TRANSFORMATION605

24.5 BYTE MANIPULATION FUNCTIONS606

24.6 INFORMATION ABOUT REMOTE HOST607

24.7 SOCKET SYSTEM CALLS608

Socket608

Bind608

Connect609

Listen609

Sendto610

Accept610

Recvfrom611

Read611

Write612

Close612

24.8 CONNECTIONLESS ITERATIVE SERVER612

Server613

Client614

24.9 UDP CLIENT-SERVER PROGRAMS614

Server Porogram615

Client Program616

24.10 CONNECTION-ORIENTED CONCURRENT SERVER618

Server618

Client620

24.11 TCP CLIENT-SERVER PROGRAMS621

Server Program622

Client Program623

24.12 SUMMARY625

24.13 PRACTICE SET626

Multiple Choice626

Exercises631

Programming Exercises631

Chapter 25 Next Generation:Ipv6 and ICMPv6633

Chapter 25 Next Generation:Ipv6 and ICMPv6633

25.1 IPV6634

25.2 IPV6 ADDRESSES634

Hexadecimal Colon Notation634

Address Space Assignment636

Categories of Addresses636

Base Header642

25.3 IPV6 PACKET FORMAT642

Priority644

Flow Label645

Comparison between Ipv4 and Ipv6 Headers646

Extension Headers646

Comparison between Ipv4 and Ipv6653

Error Reporting654

25.4 ICMPV6654

Query658

25.5 TRANSITION FROM IPV4 TO IPV6663

Dual Stack664

Tunneling664

Header Translation665

25.6 SUMMARY667

25.7 PRACTICE SET668

Multiple Choice668

Exercises673

Programming Exercises675

Appendix A ASCII Code677

Appendix A ASCII Code677

Appendix B Numbering Systems and Transformation683

Appendix B Numbering Systems and Transformation683

B.1 NUMBERING SYSTEMS683

Binary Numbers684

Decimal Numbers684

Octal Numbers685

Hexadecimal Numbers686

B.2 TRANSFORMATION687

From Other Systems to Decimal688

From Decimal to Other Systems688

From Binary to Octal or Hexadecimal688

From Octal or Hexadecimal to Binary689

Appendix C Representation of Binary Numbers691

C.1 UNSIGNED NUMBERS691

Appendix C Representation of Binary Numbers691

C.2 SIGNED NUMBERS692

Sign-and-Magnitude692

One s Complemet694

Two s Complement695

C.3 MORE ABOUT ONE S COMPLEMENT696

Finding the Complement696

Adding Two Numbers697

Appendix D Error Detection699

Appendix D Error Detection699

D.1 TYPES OF ERRORS699

Single-Bit Error700

Multiple-Bit Error700

Burst Error700

D.2 DETECTION701

Redundancy701

Vertical Redundancy Check(VRC)702

Longitudinal Redundancy Check(LRC)703

Cyclic Redundancy Check(CRC)703

Checksum706

Appendix E Encryption/Decryption707

Appendix E Encryption/Decryption707

E.1 CONVENTIONAL METHODS707

DES708

E.2 PUBLIC KEY METHODS709

RSA Encyption710

E.3 AUTHENTICATION711

Appendix F MIB Objects713

F.1 SYSTEM GROUP713

F.2 INTERFACE GROUP713

Appendix F MIB Objects713

F.3 IP GROUP715

F.4 ICMP GROUP717

F.5 TCP GROUP718

F.6 UDP GROUP719

Appendix G High-Level Data Link Control(HDLC)721

Appendix G High-Level Data Link Control(HDLC)721

G.1 STATION TYPES721

G.2 CONFIGURATIONS721

G.3 MODES OF COMMUNICATION722

NRM723

ARM723

ABM723

G.4 FRAMES724

G.5 MORE ABOUT FRAMES726

I-frames727

S-frames727

U-frames727

G.6 LINK ACCESS PROCEDURES(LAPS)728

LAPB728

LAPD728

LAPM728

Appendix H Project 802729

Appendix H Project 802729

H.1 PROJECT 802.1730

H.2 PROJECT 802.2730

LLC731

MAC731

Appendix I ASN.1733

Appendix I ASN.1733

1.1 DATA TYPES AND VALUES733

Simple Type733

Structured Type734

Tags735

Subtyping735

Values735

1.2 MODULES AND MACROS736

Modules736

Macros736

Appendix J Spanning Tree737

Appendix J Spanning Tree737

J.1 SPANNING TREES AND BRIDGES738

Algorithm739

Forming the Spanning Tree740

Example740

J.2 SPANNING GREES AND MULTICAST ROUTING742

Appendix K Contact Addresses743

Appendix K Contact Addresses743

Appendix L RFCs745

Appendix L RFCs745

Appendix M UDP and TCP Ports747

Appendix M UDP and TCP Ports747

Solutions749

Solutions749

Acronyms773

Acronyms773

Glossary781

Glossary781

References809

References809

Index811

Index811